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The togishi (研師), or sword polisher, has held a vital role in Japan for centuries, dedicating their meticulous craft to refining and preserving Japanese swords. 

Depending on the sword’s condition, their labor-intensive process can take several days or even weeks to complete.

Over time, the art of Japanese sword polishing has gained widespread recognition, showcasing the togishi’s expertise and its importance in maintaining the beauty and functionality of the blade.

What Does the Togishi Do?

As implied, a sword polisher polishes the sword. However, this is much more complex in Japanese swords as a togishi continues to sharpen and clean the blade. 

Using their tools, they make the details of the swordsmith’s metalwork stand out – resulting in an attractive blade. This means that they define the lines on the blade by:

• Bringing the hamon (temper line) to life
• Enhancing the jihada (grain of the steel)
• Accentuate the jitetsu (color and texture)
• Burnish the top and back to give it a mirror finish

In Japanese literature, polishing is akin to “expressing the true character of the sword” or to “expose its heart”. Due to their specialty, they also played a role in sword appraisal. 

The Polishing Process

The forging and hardening process leaves a mark on the blade. These marks would be easily visible if the surface is smooth. However, the polishing stones used leave some scratches on the surface. 

This means that the togishi will use a gradual series of stones, from the coarsest to the finest so the scratches left by the last stone is smaller than the structural variations in the steel. 

Pre-Polishing 

Before the polishing process begins, the togishi must observe the sword and surmise what period an antique sword is from or in a new sword, the tradition it represents. 

They must consider what sword they are dealing with by answering the following:

• Who the sword maker was
• Characteristics of the maker and their school
• The hamon (pattern) design
• Shape of the blade point
• Quality of the metal
• And more

In old swords, the togishi has to develop a feel for the metal of different periods. The difficulty in removing scratches is an indicator of how hard the steel is, its quality, and origin. 

For example, 16th century swords from the Bungo Takada region remain cloudy even after polishing. This may seem inferior to the inexperienced eye and further attempts to bring out its details can ruin the blade.

A togishi also has to learn when a blade has had enough. For example:

• An old sword where further polishing will remove the hamon
• A nick in a sword’s edge where removing will destroy the hamon

The Togishi’s Working Position

For anyone unused to it, the working position of a togishi is immensely uncomfortable. Sitting on a low stool and hunched forward, they push the blade across the polishing stone. 

Essential is a fumaegi, a curved piece of wood with one hooked end to clamp the polishing stone to the work block. This clamp is easily removed by lifting the right foot when polishing stones need to be replaced.

With the right heel pressing down on the fumaegi, the right knee is wedged into the right shoulder. Meanwhile, the left foot is curled under the body to prevent the fumaegi from moving. 

For safety reasons, the edge of the blade always faces away from the body.

Although awkward, this positions the toshigi directly over the stone to precisely control the direction, pressure, and angle of the blade. 

A bucket of water is always nearby as a lubricant.

Polishing Stages

Japanese sword polishing is divided into two stages: Shitaji togi (foundation polishing) and Shiage togi (finish polishing).

Shitaji Togi

This is the most important stage in blade restoration and repair. Before any polishing begins, the togishi inspects the sword to see if it is straight. If not, it must be corrected using wooden jigs. 

In this stage, coarser polishing stones are used, making precise control of the blade essential to prevent deep scratches. 

Any bohi (fullers) will be polished using smaller stones as well. Note that the blade is moving during the polishing process at this stage.

Shiage Togi

In the second stage, the stones used are much thinner and backed with paper and lacquer. 

These stones held in the hand are moved over the blade to create a mirror-like finish. Differentiating Between A Good and Bad Polish

A good polishing reveals all the features of the blade clearly. This is essential so the sword can be fairly appraised. In contrast, a poor polish may produce a clean blade, but with details that are cloudy. This makes appraisal of the sword much more difficult and can bring down its value. 

Togishi Were Always Necessary?

Sword polishing was already in practice when chokuto were being used. However, the evolution of sword polishing in Japan is difficult to trace as steel always rusts. The general rule is that a good polish lasts no more than a hundred years. For this reason, no one really knows what sword polishing in the Kamakura or Muromachi Period was like as they have been polished in more recent times. 

It is believed that swordsmiths originally did the rough polishing to complete the blade’s final edge and shape using the roughest stones.

• Kamakura Period: Polishers work separately from smiths using most of the stones today. 

• Momoyama Period: Polishers also serve as appraisers due to their knowledge of styles and quality. The most prominent being the Hon’ami family established by the warlord Hideyoshi in the 16th century. 

• Meiji Era: People were not allowed to wear swords, but permitted to own them as works of art. This resulted in an increase of sword owners and thus, improvement in polishing techniques. The invention of the electric light bulb also allowed togishi to work more hours, accelerating the development of the hadori style as the hamon is more visible with light. 

Sword Polishing Schools in Japan

Today, there are two main sword polishing schools in Japan. One being the Hon’ami family mentioned above and the other, the Fujishiro family. Both schools differ in training and finishing techniques:

• Hon’ami – Known for their 18th century compilation of Japan’s finest swords (Kyoho meibutsu cho), they are more strict about form and discipline. This includes how the student sits, holds the blade, and the pace one masters the stones’ progression. Students spend two years on foundation polishing and another two years on finish polishing before they are permitted to polish a blade from start to end. 

• Fujishiro – They are far more relaxed and allow their students to progress rapidly from one stage to the next. This is based on the belief that asking students to spend too much time on basics may be discouraging. Since errors in polishing do not show till the later stages, students are asked to work on a blade from start to finish to learn where their mistakes occur. 

There are about 50 togishi in Japan today. Although there is no standard qualification system, one must apprentice under a master or attend class to gain advanced skills.

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Hi (grooves) found on Japanese blades are not only highly functional but also serve as indicators of the blade’s swordsmith, swordmaking school, or production time, making it crucial in sword appraisal. These grooves vary greatly in shape, ranging from wide to very narrow, having shaped ends, or being carved into the tang without a finished end.

Different Types of Hi (Grooves)

In Japanese sword appraisal, the swordsmith, school or tradition, and the age of the blade are determined based on its appearance. Generally, the hi (grooves) and their features are examined when evaluating the blade shape (sugata).

Hi vary in shape, with specific grooves associated with particular swordsmiths and swordmaking traditions. However, some grooves were added later and are referred to as ato-bi (後樋). The grooves are only considered indicators in sword appraisal when they are original to the blade.

For a comprehensive list of swordsmiths and schools, the book The Connoisseur’s Book of Japanese Swords by Kōkan Nagayama serves as a valuable reference.

1. Bo-hi (Straight, Wide Groove)

Also spelled bo-bi, a bo-hi (棒樋) is a long, straight, wide groove. As a long and wide groove, it takes most of the shinogi-ji, which is the surface between the ridge line and the back of the blade. However, when a long, wide groove is carved into a tanto or a specific type of wakizashi, such as hira-zukuri ko-wakizashi, the term katana-hi (刀樋) applies.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Bo-hi is the most common type of groove used by several swordsmiths and schools, making it impossible to provide representative names.

2. Bo-hi with Soe-bi

Bo-hi with soe-bi (棒樋に添樋) refers to a straight, wide groove (bo-hi) accompanied by a second, thinner groove (soe-bi). Its thinner groove lies along the wider groove and can either be located at the ridge line (shinogi), on the flat surface between the ridge line and the back (shinogi-ji), or slightly under the shinogi-ji.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Bo-hi with soe-bi was more or less introduced by the Bizen swordsmiths of the Nanbokucho period, with this style being most popular during the Muromachi period.

Notable swordsmiths known for incorporating this groove in their blades include Nobukuni, Sanjo Yoshinori, Horikawa Kunihiro, Miyoshi Nagamichi, Echizen Kanenori, and Yamashiro no Kami Kunikiyo. Schools applying this type of groove include the Hasebe, Sue-Shikkake, Kanabo, Takada, Sue-Mihara, Hojoji, etc.

3. Bo-hi with Tsure-bi

Bo-hi with tsure-bi (棒樋に連樋) refers to a straight, wide groove (bo-hi) accompanied by a second, thinner groove that extends to the top of the bo-hi. In this case, the thinner groove extends around the front of the wider groove and towards the back surface of the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Bo-hi with tsure-bi became more popular towards the end of the Muromachi period, but was also found on blades of famous Kamakura and Nanbokucho-period swordsmiths.

Koto-era smiths like Nobokuni, Sukezane, Kagemitsu, Sanenaga, and Kanemitsu incorporated this groove into their blades, as did Shinshinto-era smiths like Suishinshi Masahide and Taikei Naotane. Schools known for applying this groove into their works include the Rai, Ko-Osafune, Horikawa, Hojoji, etc.

4. Futasuji-hi (Double Bo-hi)

Futasuji-hi (二筋樋) refers to a pair of identical and parallel grooves, but not necessarily of the same length. It is also known as nihon-bi (二本樋).

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Futasuji-hi emerged towards the end of the Kamakura period, though earlier swords with this type of groove were probably added on a later date (ato-bi).

Famous swordsmiths known for incorporating futasuji-hi include Rai Kuninaga, Sadamune, Nobukuni, Kaneuji, Kanemitsu, and Izumi no Kami Kanesada to name a few. Swordmaking schools, like the Sengo, Sue-Aoe, Yasutsugu, Hojoji, also applied the groove on their works.

5. Take-kurabe

The term take-kurabe (丈比べ) translates as comparison of height. It is a variant of futasuji-hi, in which one thin groove ends noticeably before the other. It was found on some wakizashi or tanto, particularly on hira-zukuri blades without ridge lines.

6. Shobu-hi (Iris Leaf-Shaped Groove)

Another variant of the futasuji-hi, the shobu-hi (菖蒲樋) resembles an iris, as the two small grooves merge at the tip. It can be found on tanto blades of Yamato and Soshu provinces.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The shobu-hi was incorporated into blades by swordsmiths such as Rai Kunimitsu, Takagi Sadamune, Awataguchi Norikuni, Hiromitsu, as well as by the Shikkake and Miike schools.

7. Kuichigai-hi

The kuichigai-hi (喰違い樋) refers to two thin grooves, in which the top groove ends at the middle of the blade, while the bottom groove continues, surrounding the shorter groove. Sometimes, the top groove is interrupted at the middle, while the bottom groove widens into a large groove. In some cases, the thin grooves are crossing somewhere along the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Famous swordsmiths who incorporated kuichigai-hi on their works include Nobukini, Heianjo Nagayoshi, Dewa Daijo Kunimichi, Taikei Naotane, and Gassan Sadakazu, to name a few. Schools such as Hosho, Sue-Tegai, Kanabo, Uda, Koga, and Yasutsugu also used this type of groove.

8. Koshi-hi

Also pronounced as koshi-bi (腰樋), a koshi-hi is a short groove with a rounded top, carved on the lower section of the blade, near the tang. More often, it is only carved on the front of the blade. This feature was commonly seen on tanto, and occasionally on certain Koto-era tachi and katana.

Sometimes, the koshi-hi is combined with the gomabashi (護摩箸), which is a shorter variant of parallel grooves (futasuji-hi). Gomabashi was mostly seen on ko-wakizashi or tanto and rarely on tachi and katana.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Famous swordsmiths who applied a koshi-hi on their works include Nobukuni, Heianjo Nagayoshi, Shintogo Kunimitsu, Yasutsugu, Sagami no Kami Masatsune, Kanenori, Suishinshi Masahide, and Taikei Naotane, to name a few. Swordmaking schools such as the Awataguchi, Rai, and Horikawa used both the koshi-hi and the gomabashi.

9. Naginata-hi

A naginata-hi (薙刀樋) refers to a short wide groove (bo-hi), mostly accompanied by a thinner groove (soe-bi), that ends early in a diagonal manner.

The naginata-hi is named after the Japanese polearm naginata, which almost exclusively-made with this type of groove. However, the earliest known Japanese sword with such grooves is the Kogarasu Maru (小烏丸), which is double-edged at the tip. The naginata-hi was sometimes found on some tanto, wakizashi, and katana blades.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Famous swordsmiths who applied the naginata-hi to their blades include Nobukuni, Heianjo Nagayoshi, Hojoji Kunimitsu, Kurihara Nobuhide, Suishinshi Masahide, Taikei Naotane, and Gassan Sadakazu. Schools such as the Kanabo, Sue-Seki, Uda, and Horikawa incorporated the groove into their works.

Surprisingly, the naginata-hi can also be found on some Chinese swords, so some speculate that the groove may have been originally Chinese.

10. Kusabi-hi

The term kusabi-hi (楔樋) translates as wedge groove. It is one of unusual type of grooves found on some spearheads, particularly on some forms of yari used by some samurai and soldiers. The kusabi-hi can be found on some large spearheads with parallel sides and triangular cross-section. In some cases, these irregularly-cut grooves are highlighted with red lacquer.

Types of Tome (Groove End)

When it comes to hi (grooves), the term tome (留め) means stop, referring to the bottom of the groove near the tang. In sword appraisal, it is examined how a groove ends, as some run into the tang, while others end above it.

1. Kaki-toshi

The term kaki-toshi (書き通し) means no end, referring to a groove-end that is cut all the way through the full length of the tang.

2. Kaki-nagashi

The term kaki-nagashi (書き流し) means halfway end, referring to a groove-end that extends and tapers halfway down the tang. Generally, a kaki-nagashi does not have a crisp and clear end, but it tapers out gradually into the body of the tang.

3. Kaku-dome

The term kaku-dome (角留め) means square end. Most of the time, this groove-end finishes around an inch from the notches (machi) or just above the tang in an angular manner.

However, in case the groove ends within the tang with a distinct kaku-dome the same way it would have stopped before the notches, it may still be considered as a kaku-dome. It differs from the usual kaki-nagashi, which gradually and smoothly extends into the body of the tang.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The kaku-dome can be seen in the blades of famous swordsmiths like Tomonari, Nagamitsu, Kagemitsu, Shimada Yoshisuke, Dewa Daijo Kunimichi, Yokoyama Sukesada, Taikei Naotane, and Gassan Sadakazu. Also, some schools, such as Oei-Bizen, Tegai, Takada, and Hojoji, incorporated the kaku-dome into their works.

4. Maru-dome

The term maru-dome (丸留め) means rounded end, referring to the end of the groove finished with a round and even surface. It often stops above the tang on the polished portion of the blade and can be seen on various types of hi, including bo-hi with soe-bi, naginata-hi, and such.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: Bizen swords of the mid-Kamakura and Muromachi periods often feature a maru-dome. It is important to note that the maru-dome executed by swordsmiths Kanemitsu and Kagemitsu was typically positioned higher than that of other smiths. Additionally, famous swordsmiths such as Nobukuni, Heianjo Nagayoshi, and Echizen Yasutsugu incorporated it into their works, as did schools like Sue-Tegai, Kanabo, and Horikawa.

Types of Hisaki (Groove Tip)

The tip of the hi (groove) is called the hisaki (樋先), located near the point area of the blade. In sword appraisal, it is examined how the groove ends towards the tip of the blade, as certain swordsmiths and schools favored specific types of hisaki.

1. Hisaki-agaru (Rising Hisaki)

The hisaki-agaru (樋先上がる) refers to a groove that is more or less close to the ko-shinogi and extends beyond the yokote. Technically, the ko-shinogi is the diagonal line that separates the point area of the blade from the back. In contrast, the yokote is the perpendicular line to the cutting edge, distinguishing the point from the body of the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The hisaki agaru is popular on Koto blades and rarely on Shinto blades. Famous swordsmiths associated with incorporating the rising hisaki on their blades include Nobukuni, Kagemitsu, Kunimune, Suishinshi Masahide, Taikei Naotane, and occasionally Echizen Yasutsugu, Tadayoshi, and Horikawa Kunihiro. Schools associated with hisaki agaru include the Rai, Ko-Bizen, Ichimonji, and Ko-Osafune.

2. Hisaki-sagaru (Descending Hisaki)

The hisaki-sagaru (樋先下がる) refers to a groove that stops below the yokote, which is the line perpendicular to the cutting edge that separates the point area from the body of the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The hisaki-sagaru was mostly seen on Nanbokucho-period swords and Satsuma-province swords. Famous swordsmiths who incorporated the descending hisaki into their blades include Go Yoshihiro, Dewa Daijo Kunimichi, Tadayoshi, and Sa Yukihide. Schools such as Tegai, Shikkake, Chogi, Sue-Aoe, and Hojoji also incorporated the hisaki-sagaru into their works.

Types of Chiri (Groove Wall)

The term chiri (written as チリ or 散) literally means wall of the groove. In sword appraisal, particular attention is given to the chiri, especially when the blade is in shinogi-zukuri style, characterized by a distinct ridge line (shinogi).

When a wide groove is carved on a shinogi-zukuri blade, a very narrow flat surface (shinogi-ji), known as the chiri, may remain on one or both sides of the groove.

1. Ryo-chiri

The term ryo-chiri (両チリ) means two walls, referring to the remaining flat surface (shinogi-ji) on both sides of the groove. This occurs when a wide groove is carved at the center of the shinogi-ji, leaving a chiri along the ridge line (shinogi) and towards the back (mune) of the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The ryo-chiri was often seen in schools outside the Gokaden (The Five Traditions). It was commonly found in the blades crafted by swordsmiths from the provinces of Kaga, Echizen, Hoki, and Iwami. While it became rare after the Koto era, the ryo-chiri occasionally appeared in the works of swordsmiths such as Ogasawara Nagamune, Higo Daijo Sadakuni, and Echizen Daijo Tadakuni.

2. Kata-chiri

The term kata-chiri (片チリ) means one wall, referring to the remaining flat surface (shinogi-ji) on one side of the groove. It happens when the wide groove is carved directly along the ridge line (shinogi) and leaves only a chiri towards the back (mune) of the blade.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The kata-chiri was popular with all Koto-era schools, though it was used less often during the Shinto era. It was seen in the blades of swordsmiths Yokoyama Sukesada, Ichinohira Yasuyo, Suishinshi Masahide, Taikei Naotane, and Gassan Sadakazu.

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Yasurime, decorative file patterns on the tang of a Japanese blade, are more than just an aesthetic detail—it’s a vital clue in uncovering a sword’s history. These patterns, unique to individual swordsmiths, schools, and historical periods, serve as a silent storyteller, revealing the blade’s age and origin.

Join us as we delve into the fascinating world of yasurime, exploring its appearance, the various types, and its critical role in the art of sword appraisal.

Appearance of Yasurime

A Japanese sword tang features yasurime (distinctive file marks) next to the habaki (blade collar). Typically with the same pattern on both sides, these marks vary in depth, thickness, and spacing depending on the file used by the swordsmith. 

However, each of the following surfaces of the tang must be filed separately: 

•  ji (steel surface of the sword)
• shinogi-ji (surface of the blade between the shinogi ridge line and the back surface)
• mune (unsharpened back surface of the blade).

Types of Yasurime

The terms “yasuri (file) and yasurime (file marks) describe the filing patterns or strokes on the tang. The style of filing varies in different swordsmiths, schools, and periods.

1. Kiri (Horizontal)

The most popular yasurime is Kiri yasurime, also known as yoko yasurime. They are often found on blades from Awataguchi and Rai schools of the Yamashiro tradition and the Shikkake school of the Yamato tradition.

• Pattern: Straight and horizontal, filed from edge to back

2. Katte Sagari (Downward Slanting)

Katte sagari is the second most popular style throughout all periods and is also found on blades from the Awataguchi, Rai, and Shikkake sword making schools.

• Pattern: Slanting from top left to bottom right at a shallow angle, less than 45 degrees

3. Katte Agari (Upward Slanting)

Katte agari is the opposite of katte sagari.

• Pattern: Slanting from bottom left to top right at a shallow angle, less than 45 degrees.

4. Sujikai (Diagonal)

Sujikai is similar to katte sagari, the only difference being that it slants at a greater degree. The even steeper variety is o-sujikai (great sujikai), seen on blades by the Aoe, Samonji, and Horikawa schools.

• Pattern: Slants from upper left to lower right, but at a steeper degree than katte sagari. 

Meanwhile, saka o-sujikai is similar to katte agari, but slants at a greater degree. It appears only on Shinto blades, such as those forged by swordsmith Horikawa Kuniyasu.

• Pattern: Slats from bottom left to top right, but at a steeper degree than katte agari.

5. Takanoha (Hawk’s Feather)

Takanoha file marks resemble a hawk’s feather. These V-shaped file marks were seen in blades of the Yamato tradition and related sword making schools in the Koto era.

• Pattern: Slanting down from the tang’s centerline to outer edge. The ridged side of the tang (shinoji-ji) slants downward to the right, while the edge side of the tang (hiraji) slants downward to the left. 

The opposite of the takanoha is saka takanoha, featuring an inverted V-shaped pattern. It is mainly seen in blades from the Yamato and Mino provinces.

• Pattern: The file marks on the shinogi-ji slant upwards to the right, while those on the hiraji slant upwards to the left. 

6. Kesho (Cosmetic File Marks)

Kesho yasurime or kesho yasuri translates to “cosmetic file marks”, appearing only on Shinto and later blades, though there were variations in blades of various swordsmiths and schools. It was only used by swordsmiths of the Edo period, from 1603 to 1867 and after.

• Pattern: Combination of slants covering most of the tang and horizontal marks. File marks can have two (nidan-kesho) or three (sandan-kesho) directions.

7. Higaki (Cross-Hatched)

Since the term higaki refers to a fence made of thin strips of Japanese cypress, the higaki yasurime is similar to the woven pattern on the fence. It is widely seen on blades from the Yamato and Mino traditions and the Naminohira school in the Koto era.

• Pattern: Cross-hatched pattern, with slanted file marks going in both directions

8. Sensuki (Shaved)

Sensuki yasurime is created using a sen (a tool similar to a plane for shaping wood). Since early sword tangs (usually double-edged ken or tsurugi) were shaved rather than filed, this style is mainly seen on jokoto blades (pre-1000 CE). Sensuki also appeared on early Koto-era swords and sometimes on Mino blades from the Muromachi period (1338 – 1573 CE)

• Pattern: Irregular vertical strokes

Why Is Yasurime Crucial for Sword Appraisal?

The yasurime can reveal significant information when appraising a Japanese sword as the file marks differ based on the historical period, swordsmith’s techniques, and various swordmaking schools, aiding in understanding the blade’s origins and authenticity.

Since a Japanese sword’s tang is never cleaned or polished during its lifetime, the clarity of the yasurime, presence of remaining file marks, and color of the rust that accumulates are key when dating a blade. 

The yasurime can also be examined through oshigata, highly detailed drawings of Japanese blades that are more accurate than photographs. A well-drawn oshigata can help in identifying specific swords even centuries after its creation. 

However, expert Markus Sesko warns that oshigata can be misleading, emphasizing that there is no substitute for examining the blade in person.

Yasurime Beyond Sword Blades

Yasurime are not limited to swords and are featured in other Japanese bladed weapons including: 

• tanto daggers
• polearms such as the yari (spear) and naginata (glaive)
• jumonji yari (a cross-shaped spear variant with curved protrusions resembling cow horns).

The term yasurime can also refer to file marks on sword fittings, such as the tsuba (sword guard), kozuka (utility knife handle), and kogai (hairdressing tool). 

Common types of file marks on sword guards include amida-yasurime (resembling sun rays in a radial pattern) and okina-yasurime (concentric circles similar to marks left by a potter’s wheel).

The backs of kozuka and kogai are often decorated with yasurime. The most common pattern is sujikai-yasurime (slanting strokes). Others include nekogaki-yasurime (resembling cat scratches) and matsukawa-yasurime (resembling the texture of pine bark).

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The Celts were great warriors and skilled swordsmen with a distinguished reputation across ancient Europe. Their swords, some of the earliest long iron blades in history, showcase advanced ironworking techniques of the time, highlighting their expertise and technological advancements.

In this article, we explore the Celts’ impact on European swordmaking, delving into the evolution of their sword designs.

Who Were the Celts, and How Did They Influence Swordmaking in Europe?

The Celtic People were a group of tribal peoples living in parts of central and western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and throughout the Iron Age. 

• Inhabited Regions: Scotland, Britain, Ireland, France, the Low Countries, the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, the Balkans, and Anatolia. 
• Tribes: Britons, Gauls, Gaels, Celtiberians, and Galatians. 

Celtic mercenaries were even found as far away as Egypt, serving as elite bodyguards for Cleopatra VII during her reign. Some Celtic warrior tribes clashed with the Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians, and Anatolians.

Dr. Alan Williams, a renowned expert in the metallurgy of armor and weapons, noted that the Celts produced the first iron swords in Europe around the 7th century BCE. They introduced ironworking to Europe, revolutionizing the production of armor, weapons, and established trading networks lasting centuries.

The Evolution of Early Celtic Swords in the Hallstatt Period

The term Hallstatt, derived from an archaeological site in Austria, refers to the culture of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in central and western Europe. The Hallstatt period is typically divided into four phases (A, B, C, and D), spanning from approximately 1200 BCE to around 450 BCE.

Carp’s Tongue and Antennae-Hilted Swords

John T. Koch, a historian specializing in Celtic studies, stated that the earliest swords linked to the Celts were the carp’s tongue and antennae-hilted swords from the Hallstatt B period (Late Bronze Age). They are characterized by their leaf-shaped blades.

Gundlingen and Mindelheim Swords

Most experts agree that the earliest Celts used swords from the late Hallstatt period (around 800-450 BCE). 

Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe noted that the Hallstatt C long swords, specifically the Gündlingen and Mindelheim types, evolved from a long-standing tradition of swordmaking.

• Gündlingen Sword: Most common type, primarily made of bronze, widely used across central and western Europe.
• Mindelheim sword: First European iron sword, designed for warriors on horseback or in chariots, replaced the Gündlingen by mid-8th century BCE. 

Celtic Iron Daggers

By the Hallstatt D period (600-450 BCE), spears became the main offense weapon while iron daggers became the standard sidearm. Celtic daggers eventually replaced swords as common grave goods.

Archaeologist Radomir Pleiner suggested that the shift from swords to daggers and spears was influenced by the hoplite-and-phalanx model from southern Europe. However, Celtic iron daggers were not designed for prolonged combat and were likely symbols of status and rank. 

Additionally many local rulers were protected by their followers and subjects, so carrying a sword became less necessary. 

Celtic Rapier or Knollenknaufschwerter

Knollenknaufschwerter, meaning bulbous tang swords, differ significantly from typical Celtic swords as they resemble rapiers with their slender blades and a diamond cross-section, designed primarily for thrusting. These swords date back to the Late Hallstatt or Early La Tène periods.

Archaeologist Radomir Pleiner noted that Celtic rapiers were not the standard warrior’s weapon. Instead, they were likely used for fencing, duels, or ceremonial purposes. 

Unlike most Celtic swords found in graves, these rapiers were often discovered in rivers and lakes, intentionally deformed or broken, suggesting their ceremonial use.

The Evolution of Celtic Sword Designs in the La Tène Period

The term La Tène, originating from an archaeological site in Switzerland, refers to the Celtic culture of the Late Iron Age (450-15 BCE) which began with Celtic interactions with Greek and Etruscan cultures. It ended when most of the Celts lost their independence to Rome.

Celtic Long Swords of the La Tène Type

Celtic long swords of the La Tène period featured wide, long, double-edged blades with a guard that aligns with the blade’s curved or sloping shoulders.

Although designed for cutting, archaeologist Radomir Pleiner suggested that they were likely used as cut-and-thrust weapons.

Like their blades, many Celtic sword scabbards were renowned for their elaborate and intricate designs such as stylized zoomorphic elements, geometric patterns, and arabesques, created through incising, engraving, or chasing.

Anthropoid Short Swords and Daggers

Another notable Celtic La Tene period weapon is the anthropoid short sword or dagger, named for its human-shaped hilt. The X-shaped figure has upper branches representing arms, the center as the torso, and the lower branches as legs, often capped with a knob stylized to resemble a human head.

Archaeologist Radomir Pleiner suggests that these anthropoid swords likely served as personal weapons. Although impractical for the battlefield, their discovery in the graves of the elite suggests their role as a status symbol or ceremonial significance. 

The Role of Celtic Swords in Warfare

The Celts were skilled swordsmen, typically fighting on foot with minimal armor—mainly a helmet and shield—while nobles fought on horseback or in chariots.

Unlike the phalanx formations used by Mediterranean civilizations, where long swords were ineffective, the Celts unconventionally favored their long swords for cutting and slashing.

Ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus observed that Celts commonly carried long swords on their right, suspended by an iron or bronze chain.

Some Celtic tribes, like the Parisi of Yorkshire, carried their swords across their backs, drawing them over the shoulder from behind. 

Another ancient Greek historian Strabo, recorded how Celtic warriors fought in close combat, charging into enemy lines as a unified force. Using their shields for defense, they slashed with swords and thrusted with spears. 

This traditional style of warfare persisted until the Roman conquest in Europe and Britain, and later in Ireland.

Conclusion

The evolution of Celtic sword designs significantly contributed to advancing European swordmaking. As early iron masters, the Celts showcased exceptional craftsmanship and metalworking skills.

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From the glowing blade of a hero destined to save the world to the menacing weapon of a dark overlord, fantasy swords have carved their place in our imagination. These iconic weapons don’t just slice through enemies—they carry rich stories of power, legacy, and magic.

While many designers draw inspiration from historical swords, the fantastical twists they add often stray far from reality, creating weapons that are as impractical as they are breathtaking. But what drove these designs? Was it history, mythology, or pure creativity?

Let’s dive into the inspiration behind the most beloved fantasy swords to ever grace our screens.

1. Star Wars Lightsaber

In Star Wars films, lightsabers are the weapons of both the Jedi and Sith. These weapons have blades made of laser energy capable of cutting through almost anything, including enemies, blast doors, and even deflecting incoming blaster bolts. In a Star Wars Featurette, writer-director George Lucas revealed that the original concept was for the Jedi knights to fight with just swords. However, he aimed to create a futuristic and technologically advanced version of a sword, resulting in a lightsaber.

Initially, lightsabers were envisioned as extremely heavy weapons requiring the use of two hands. Over time, they became conceptually lighter, enabling single-handed use. This change was driven by the desire to make lightsaber duels faster and more intense. The design of lightsaber hilts was inspired by a vintage 1940s camera flashgun, also known as the Graflex handle.

The design of lightsabers evolved over the years, ranging from the typical single-ended design to dual-ended, piked, and folding types. In Star Wars: The Force Awakens, a Sith lightsaber featured mini-plasma-like blades as a crossguard. Crossguards historically served to protect a swordsman’s hand from an opponent’s blade.

Many believe incorporating crossguards into lightsabers could be practical due to the frequent hand amputations depicted in Star Wars films. However, some argue that weaponized crossguards might pose additional dangers to the wielder, particularly during complex fighting maneuvers and spins. Notably, the Sith lightsaber design appears crudely made, flawed, and would be overloaded if not for the side vents that create the quillons—arms of the crossguard.

2. King Arthur’s Excalibur

The Excalibur is the magical sword of King Arthur of Camelot, given by the Lady of the Lake. In the Arthurian legends, the legendary king could not be defeated as long as he carried it, as its scabbard protected him from all wounds.

The Excalibur is rooted in Celtic beliefs, traditions, and myths. The Celts endowed supernatural powers to the weapons of gods, kings, heroes, and warriors. Weapons were also given with personalities of their own, as well as names, pedigrees, and histories. Also, the Celts traditionally threw their weapons into ponds and lakes, likely associated with their sacrificial rituals.

Some believe the Excalibur may have been associated with the Caladbolg, a lightning sword of Irish hero Fergus mac Róich. The Irish Caladbolg translates as hard gap, which could mean cleaving through the hardship [of battle] or cleaving what is hard. It is also called caladbou, meaning hard fighter. The Irish Caladbolg has the same meaning as the Welsh Caledfwlch—an alternative name of Excalibur.

However, their similarities may be due to the common borrowing between Celtic languages. Some scholars suggest that the Irish Caladbolg and the Welsh Caledfwlch were likely generic terms for a sword, and the latter became Arthur’s sword in the British tradition.

3. Mulan’s Sword

The epic tale of China’s legendary warrior, Hua Mulan, has undergone adaptations spanning over a thousand years. 

In Disney’s latest film Mulan, as with the original Ballad of Mulan, the protagonist disguises herself as a man in place of her ailing father and enlists in the army to fight invaders. At first glance, the sword wielded by Mulan in the film appears to be a jian sword characterized by its straight design.

However, upon closer examination, the sword features a straight, single-edged blade, classifying it as a dao. Typically, the term dao implies a curved Chinese saber, though it may also be a straight dao or straight-backed dao called zhibeidao. The earliest Chinese single-edged swords were zhibeidao, until the Mongols introduced the curved saber to China.

The Wētā Workshop, responsible for manufacturing the film’s weapon props, has revealed that they intentionally made the blade highly reflective due to a particular scene where Mulan looks at her reflection in the blade. Beyond this, they created a special sword twice the size to achieve the perfect reflection for that specific shot.

4. Game of Thrones Swords

Swords are the most prestigious weapons in the Game of Thrones, an American television series based on George R.R. Martin’s novel series A Song of Ice and Fire. Martin took inspiration from medieval and Renaissance European swords, especially when envisioning the swords of Westeros. Still, many sword designs were influenced by various designers responsible for the show’s iconic weapons.

Martin also incorporated a magical element into certain swords through Valyrian steel, a legendary and rare material capable of killing the White Walkers and their leader, the Night King. The swords featured in both the show and novels have names, with a select few made from Valyrian steel, including Ice, Longclaw, Oathkeeper, and Heartsbane.

Ned Stark’s Ice

Ice is the ancient greatsword of House Stark, owned by Ned Stark (also known as Eddard Stark), and the first Valyrian steel blade featured in the show. It reminds us of the two-handed greatswords of the 15th and 16th centuries, an extremely large sword with a massive blade, requiring two hands for proper wielding.

Historically, the large two-handed great swords have been known by various names, including doppelhänder (double-hander), bidenhänder (both-hander), zweihander (two-hander), montante, and spadone. Some were used on the battlefield against multiple opponents, to break up pikemen formations, or even as ceremonial bearing swords or parade swords (paratschwerter).

One of the most renowned battlefield uses of the greatsword was among the German Landsknechts mercenaries, specifically the doppelsöldners (double-pay men), who skillfully used the zweihander to breach enemy ranks. During the early Renaissance, pike formations were common, and the zweihander was used to cut off the shafts of long pole weapons.

Jon Snow’s Longclaw

Jon Snow’s Longclaw was bequeathed to him by Jeor Mormont from House Mormont, the Lord Commander of the Night’s Watch. It originally had a bear-head pommel, the heraldic emblem of House Mormont. As a token of gratitude for Jon saving his life, Jeor altered the pommel into a dire wolf-head, the sigil of House Stark, then gifted it to Jon.

Historically, bastard swords, which emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries, are a type of longsword featuring hand-and-a-half grips, allowing it to be wielded with one or two hands. Additionally, the tradition of crafting sword pommels in the shape of animal or human heads originated in the region spanning present-day Iran and Eastern Turkey, dating back to around 1200 to 800 BCE.

Stylized animal heads on sword pommels also appeared later during the Viking Age, largely fading until their revival from the 16th to the 19th century. Lion-head pommels also gained popularity among British military swords during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Brienne of Tarth’s Oathkeeper

The Oathkeeper is a reforged Valyrian steel sword, melted from Ned Stark’s Ice. It originally belonged to Jaime Lannister, who later gave it to Brienne of Tarth when he sent her on a mission to find the Stark girls. In her dedication to upholding her vows and promises, Brienne named her sword Oathkeeper.

The Oathkeeper is notable for its elaborately decorated grips, quillons, and stylized animal-head pommel. Its hilt design is comparable to 16th-century European hunting swords, which were used for finishing off a wounded animal after being impaled by a spear or shot. These historical weapons sometimes feature engravings depicting scenes of hunting. Some American presentation swords and 19th-century British bandsmen swords also feature decorative hilts.

Jorah Mormont’s Heartsbane

The Heartsbane is a Valyrian steel sword that once belonged to House Tarly. Samwell Tarly gave the sword to Jorah Mormont in the fight against the White Walkers. Similar to Ned Stark’s Ice, the Heartsbane is a two-handed greatsword.

In a feature by CNET showcasing armorer Natalia Lee, it is revealed that the Heartsbane design draws inspiration from hunting rifles and Biblical Renaissance paintings. Given that the sigil of House Tarly is a striding huntsman, the sword’s shape mirrors that of a bow and arrow and is decorated with hunting motifs.

Arya Stark’s Needle

Arya Stark named her sword Needle, referencing her least favorite domestic craft: needlework. It was a gift from her half-brother Jon Snow, and its compact size makes it well-suited for a young individual like Arya.

The Needle has a thin, lightweight blade, likely inspired by European smallswords from the 17th and 18th centuries. Smallswords were civilian weapons and dueling swords designed for thrusting.

However, the Needle’s simple hilt design is more similar to a 17th-century pillow sword, so-called because of where it was kept. In the past, a pillow sword would hang above a headboard within easy reach, serving as a means of bedside defense against nighttime intrusion.

The Arakh of the Dothraki

The Arakh is the distinctive weapon of the Dothraki, a feared and ferocious warrior culture in the Game of Thrones. It features a crescent moon-shaped blade and an extended handle, making it half-sickle and half-sword. Warrior Daario Naharis of the Second Sons also wielded this weapon.

The Arakh, as depicted in the show, shares similarities with the ancient Egyptian khopesh of the Bronze Age. During Egypt’s New Kingdom period, the khopesh was a typical military weapon used for slashing in close-quarters combat.

5. Anduril Sword from The Lord of the Rings

In the novel and film series The Lord of the Rings, Anduril was the sword of Aragorn II, who later became King Elessar Telcontar. The name Anduril translates as Flame of the West. In the story, Anduril was reforged from the shards of Narsil sword previously wielded by Isildur.

In the film, Anduril is portrayed as a longsword featuring a cruciform hilt. Historically, the longsword is most closely associated with medieval knights, who wielded it both on the battlefield and in duels. It was light enough to be used single-handedly, yet its extended grip allowed the use of both hands.

6. The Hobbit Swords

In The Hobbit, a prequel to The Lord of the Rings, several magical swords draw inspiration from ancient, medieval, and Renaissance designs while incorporating imaginative, non-historical elements. Among the most popular are Gandalf’s Glamdring and Bilbo’s Sting.

Glamdring

The Glamdring, also known as the Foe-hammer and the Beater, is the legendary sword wielded by the wizard Gandalf. In the films, Gandalf used his Glamdring sword to complement his staff, fighting with both weapons at once.

The Glamdring is depicted as a bastard sword with a hand-and-a-half grip, inscribed with runes, and a jeweled hilt. Throughout history, many swords bore talismanic inscriptions or symbols on their hilts or blades, designed to protect the wielder. Such practices can be seen on Islamic swords, medieval European swords, Japanese swords featuring horimono carvings, and even Chinese swords.

Sting

Sting is a short sword wielded by Bilbo Baggins and was later passed to his heir, Frodo Baggins. It is a magical sword that glows blue when it senses danger, especially when goblins or orcs are nearby. Originally, the concept for Sting drew inspiration from a 16th-century Swiss Holbein dagger, favored among the upper classes of society.

As portrayed in the films, Sting has a leaf-shaped blade similar to the historical Greek xiphos sword used by hoplites and Spartans. Historically, the xiphos served as the secondary weapon for Greek warriors in close-quarters combat. It was also the typical sword of both Classical and Hellenistic Greece.

Sting is also comparable to a specific type of Roman gladius short sword—the Mainz type—characterized by its classic waisted form. The Romans used the Mainz gladius during Augustus’ expansive territorial campaigns. The Celtic long sword, the Mindelheim type, also featured a leaf-shaped blade. However, Sting has a cruciform hilt reminiscent of medieval swords.

7. The Witcher Steel Sword

In television series The Witcher, the monster-hunter Geralt of Rivia wields a steel sword designed to dispatch both men and monsters. In the story, this sword is crafted from meteorite, making it more durable than traditional steel. Notably, Renfi’s brooch adorns the hilt to remind Geralt to avoid entanglements in the affairs of men because they often lead to their own personal pain.

The Witcher’s steel sword clearly draws inspiration from medieval longswords. However, actor Henry Cavill, who portrayed Geralt of Rivia, revealed that he asked to redesign the sword’s hilt. Instead of a typical cruciform hilt, he favored forward-angled quillons (the arms of the crossguard) to enable him to flick it through his wrist.

8. Hattori Hanzo Sword

In the Kill Bill film series, the Hattori Hanzo sword served as the deadly weapon of the Bride, later known as Beatrix Kiddo (played by Uma Thurman). It draws inspiration from the katana sword wielded by the samurai warriors of feudal Japan and features distinctive elements adapted to the film. Notably, its blade features a foo dog carving, the mark of the master swordsmith Hattori Hanzo, who forged the sword.

However, historical Hattori Hanzo was not a swordsmith but rather a ninja or a samurai. Additionally, the name Hattori served as a family name, while Hanzo was a title or position given to the head of the Hattori family of Iga province in Japan, as each successor inherited the role from his predecessor. In this context, Hattori Hanzo simply means Head of the Hattori Family.

Several individuals had the name Hattori Hanzo, spanning generations from grandfather to grandson. Some historians believe that the first Hattori Hanzo, also known as Hattori Yasunaga, was a ninja leader of the family. However, his sons and grandsons served as samurai during the Sengoku and early Edo periods.

9. Sakabato from Rurouni Kenshin 

The sakabato is the reverse-edged katana popularized by the manga and anime series Rurouni Kenshin (also known as Samurai X), which was later adapted into a film series. Unlike the historical katana, the fictional sakabato has a blunt edge on the outward curve of the blade facing the opponent and a cutting edge on the inward curve facing the wielder.

The idea behind a reverse-edged katana is to incapacitate enemies without killing them. In the story, the protagonist, Himura Kenshin, is a former assassin who has sworn off killing. Master swordsmith Arai Shakku forged the sakabato to honor the peacetime that the Meiji era would bring.

While the sakabato or reverse-edged katana is fictional, swordsmith Kanekuni Ogawa created the first real-life version of the sword. Similar to traditional Japanese swords, this real-life version features a genuine hamon, or temperline pattern, though it appears on the cutting edge of the inward blade curve. Also, the fictional Arai Shakku’s death poem is inscribed on the sword’s tang.

10. Zatoichi’s Sword Cane

In Japanese films, Zatoichi is a blind swordsman who wields a sword cane to protect the innocent and fight injustice. The name Zatoichi is derived from Zato-No-Ichi, meaning Ichi the Masseur. In feudal Japan, blind people often served as masseurs, yet Zatoichi’s combat skills enabled him to rise above the class restraints of Japanese society.

Zatoichi’s sword cane draws inspiration from the shikomizue, a Japanese sword mounting that disguises a concealed blade within an ordinary wooden walking stick. The shikomizue gained popularity towards the end of the Edo period and in the early Meiji period, as the ban on wearing swords in public created a demand for concealed weapons.

However, the term shikomizue may also refer to concealed daggers, spearheads, hooks, chains, arrows, climbing aids, and even poison disguised as walking sticks or staffs. The shikomizue was popular among ninjas, assassins, and other criminals. In fact, the shikomizue is a variety of shinobi-zue weapons used by ninjas.

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Chinese society has always believed in the power of symbolisms, amulets, and talismans. So, it’s unsurprising that swords are engraved with auspicious symbols. These ornaments are beautiful and meaningful to Chinese culture and philosophy. Many represent luck, long life, happiness, prosperity, and wealth, all of which remain relevant in modern times.

Let’s explore the most popular Chinese sword symbols seen on blades and mountings and their significance in Chinese culture.

1. The Big Dipper

In astronomy, the Big Dipper is a group of seven stars in the Ursa Major constellation. In Chinese, it is known as Běidǒu (北斗), which means Northern Dipper. It is frequently worshiped by the Chinese and is considered the throne of the supreme deity Shang-di in ancient Chinese religion and later Taoism.

The Big Dipper is commonly found on sword blades, often in the form of seven brass dots, sometimes with lines connecting them. The symbol is most seen on the Chinese straight sword jian, which collectors call the seven stars jian. It also appears on guandao polearms, or yǎnyuèdāo (偃月刀), and rarely on spearheads and saber blades.

Sometimes, the Big Dipper appears as an inscription on Taoist jian. The inscription 北斗七星南斗六星 translates as Big Dipper and South Douliou Star, in which the latter is a Chinese constellation we know as Sagittarius. In Taoism, the Big Dipper is thought to have strong exorcistic powers and plays a significant role in meditation and rituals.

2. Yin and Yang

In Chinese philosophy, the Yin and Yang are opposing but connected forces that underlie everything in nature. It is based on the principle of dualism; the Yin represents the female, earth, moon, and darkness, while the Yang symbolizes the male, heaven, sun, and light.

Also known as the taiji symbol, the Yin and Yang comprises a circle divided into two, and each half contains a smaller circle of the opposite color. Some Taoist jian features the Yin and Yang symbol on the pommel or sword blade.

3. Bagua or Eight Trigrams

The Bāguà (八卦), meaning Eight Trigrams, consists of combinations of three lines, broken or unbroken, arranged in a circle. In Chinese philosophy and belief, each trigram has its own attributes or virtues and refers to a particular element, animal, and direction, typically used in divination. In Taoism, each of the trigrams represents a Taoist immortal.

The Eight Trigrams often appear on the straight sword jian, usually on pommels and blades. Some octagonal pommels feature the Yin and Yang at the center of the symbol. Some sword blades also feature the deconstructed form of the Eight Trigrams. Some believe it has the power to ensure prosperity and avoid misfortune.

4. Bats and Longevity Symbols

In Chinese belief, bats are symbols of happiness and longevity. The Chinese pronunciation for the word bat is fú, which is the homonym of 福—happiness, good fortune, blessing, and prosperity. The Chinese god of happiness, Fuxing, is sometimes shown as a bat, symbolizing good luck.

On the other hand, shou (壽) is the Chinese character for longevity and is often used to offer wishes for long life. Together, these symbols form the pun fúshòu (福壽), which means a long and happy life. Some jian mountings, especially the fushou type, feature both stylized bats and longevity symbols on the handguard, pommel, and scabbard fittings. 

5. Swastika

The term swastika comes from the Sanskrit svastika, which means conducive to well-being. In the Buddhist tradition, it represents the footprints of the Buddha. When Buddhism spread in China and Japan, the swastika also became widespread, symbolizing prosperity, abundance, and long life.

Interlocking patterns of swastikas are sometimes carved on the sword’s grip or featured on the guard of Chinese swords, implying that the owner wishes lots of luck in his life and his family’s bloodline.

6. Dragons

Unlike the Western dragon, the Chinese dragon is regarded as a symbol of goodness, strength, and the spirit of change. Some decorations on sword mountings and blades feature dragons chasing a pearl, typical on Chinese imperial coats of arms from the Han to the Qing dynasty.

A five-clawed dragon was the emblem of imperial power, worn by the emperor and his sons. A four-clawed dragon was restricted to the princes of the third and fourth rank, while certain officials used a serpent-like creature with five claws as their emblem.

Kui Dragons

The kui is a primitive form of a dragon, and kuíwén (夔紋) is a Chinese motif that incorporates these primitive dragons. They are one-legged beasts and are generally seen as benevolent creatures that restrain greed. However, there are various forms of dragons in Chinese mythology and emblems.

In sword mountings, the kui dragons often look like abstract motifs or scrollwork with dragon faces in the designs. These kuíwén patterns were inspired by those seen in ancient Chinese bronzes, which were prized collectibles among the emperor and Chinese elites.

Chīlóng

A subspecies of a dragon, the chīlóng (螭龍) is a rain or water dragon, recognizable by its salamander-like appearance and a forked tail. These dragons are considered immature creatures that have not yet grown horns. In sword mountings, they often represent hopes and aspirations and are not associated with imperial status.

7. Tāotiè

A tāotiè (饕餮) is a mythical creature most recognized for its zoomorphic mask. Its name means glutton, likely derived from its gluttonous nature as an ever-devouring beast. Many believe it was a warning against gluttony or self-indulgence, while others suggest it may be a protective, totemic, or representation of the forces of nature. The symbol often appears on zoomorphic sword guards of jian, in a backward-swept form.

8. Lotus

The lotus flower is considered sacred in Eastern cultures and holds various symbolisms, such as purity, rebirth, faith, and integrity. The lotus emerges from the muddy depths and grows toward the surface, exposing itself as a pristine flower. In Buddhism, the lotus is one of the eight auspicious symbols and represents the path toward enlightenment. 

The lotus motif is often found on sword mountings, from sword guards to ferrules and pommels. The most common lotus motifs are engraving or pierced metalwork, such as stylized lotus petal borders on sword guards. Some Taoist jian, which feature several Taoist motifs, are also equipped with a lotus-shaped guard, likely associated with religious practice.

9. Bamboo

Bamboo is an important plant in Chinese culture and mythology. It serves as a symbol of longevity, likely due to its durability and the fact that it flourishes throughout winter. Bamboo motifs are common on Chinese sword guards, usually as decoration, such as bamboo-sectioned rims.

10. Coins

The Chinese coin symbolizes prosperity and often doubles as an ornament and amulet on sword mountings. Coin cutouts are popular ornaments in Southern China. Some sword mountings, including pommels, ferrules, and suspension bands, are sometimes pierced with stylized coin motifs.

11. Mantra

Some Chinese sword guards feature auspicious markings, such as a mantra for meditation. A notable example features the well-known mantra oṃ ā hūṃ in Lantsa script, which is thought to signify the trinity of body, sound, and spirit. The first letter represents the syllable om, which is said to embody the essence of the entire universe.

The mantras written in Lantsa script were also common in helmets of Manchus and Mongols, who were Tibetan Buddhists. They were even worn by Qianlong emperors and later by high-ranking military officials.

12. Emblems of the Eight Immortals

One of the most recognizable themes in Chinese legend and artwork, the Eight Immortals is a group of legendary figures who attained immortality. Each has his own story and emblem to signify his power.

Among the emblems of the Eight Immortals are the gourd, fan, sword, bamboo drum, castanets, flute, lotus, and flowers. Some Taoist jian swords feature the depictions of figures themselves on blades, while some scabbard features carvings of items associated with the Immortals.

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The kashira is the decorative pommel cap at the end of the sword’s handle, securing the hilt components in place. It often features intricate designs or motifs, reflecting the fine Japanese metalwork and craftsmanship. 

Let’s explore the characteristics of a kashira, what makes it unique, and its function.

Characteristics of the Kashira

The kashira widely varies in material, design, and decorative elements, showcasing the skill and artistry of Japanese artisans.

Here are the unique characteristics of the kashira:

Material and Construction

The kashira was often made of metal but sometimes of horn. Buffalo horn was preferred since it was black—even if its black lacquer wore off, it would not be noticeable. Some were made of a copper-silver alloy called shibuichi, often with gold and copper inlay. Others were made of a copper-gold alloy called shakudo, which typically consisted of 4-10% gold and 96-90% copper.

Appearance and Function

A Kashira can vary in shape, from rounded to domed, roofed, and humpbacked. The hilt (tsuka) is covered with a braided wrapping (tsuka-ito), which passes through the openings of a kashira, holding the latter in place. As a cap, the kashira secures the handle’s construction by preventing the same (ray skin) and tsuka-ito from coming loose over time.

Design and Decoration

A kashira often features intricate engravings and motifs, reflecting the aesthetic of the period or the owner’s personal style. However, a kashira without any carving or decoration is called numeri-kashira, literally slippery pommel.

Craftsmanship and Metalworking Technique

A kashira often boasts elaborate embossed patterns, engravings, and carvings. Some feature inlays of precious metals like gold or silver and other materials. Others even feature openwork designs or pierced areas, from simple geometric shapes to intricate nature-inspired patterns.

Among the most notable metalworking techniques is the katachibori, also known as single-chisel carving. It is a carving method where the motif forms the outline of a kashira and other sword fittings. The terms nikubori (sculptural or three-dimensional carving) and marubori (full carving) are also used.

Theme and Symbolism

The decorations on the kashira often reflect specific themes or symbolism. Popular motifs include abstract designs, animals, mythical creatures, nature, flowers, landscapes, symbols, folklore, or even depict scenes from legends or historical events.

Facts About the Kashira

The term kashira literally means head, referring to the metal horn or cap at the end of the tsuka. As a suffix, it is pronounced as gashira and is sometimes called tsuka-gashira.

The fuchi and kashira were usually designed to match.

A mounting protects each end of a katana or wakizashi hilt. The fuchi is the collar at the base of the grip next to the sword guard (tsuba), with a hole to allow the tang to pass through. The other is the kashira on the pommel. The fuchi and kashira were often made in matching sets, often referred to together as fuchigashira.

A kashira also often matched other sword fittings of a koshirae.

The term koshirae refers to a complete functional mounting of Japanese samurai swords and even tanto daggers. It consists of a braided hilt wrapping (tsuka-ito), a sword guard (tsuba), and lacquered scabbard (saya). Other sword fittings include matching fuchi and kashira, menuki (ornaments on the hilt’s sides), seppa (washers on each side of the tsuba), kojiri (scabbard chape), and sometimes a kozuka (handle of the utility knife).

Cross-cultural influences inspired some kashira designs.

During the Edo period, there was significant cultural exchange and trade between Japan and other regions. Some kashira were shaped like an Indian betel box called pandan, which was used to hold betel leaves, nuts, and other ingredients for chewing. The pandan box also inspired Dutch tobacco boxes.

Some kashira featured Chinese-inspired motifs.

During the Edo period, Chinese high culture significantly influenced educated Japanese circles. Japan turned to China as a source of cultural inspiration when it had limited contact with the outside world. In a fuchi-kashira set, a kashira featured the Chinese scholar Su Shi, an important figure in classical Chinese literature.

The pommel of a tachi is called kabutogane instead of kashira.

The tachi is the earliest form of curved, single-edged sword in Japan. Its pommel is called kabutogane, meaning helmet metal-fitting. It is much larger than the later kashira and features large side openings. It also has a loop fastened to attach the sword knot (udenuki cord).

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The bo-hi, or groove, is one of the most recognizable features on many Japanese blades, yet its purpose goes far beyond mere decoration. 

Running parallel to the back of the blade, these narrow channels stretch gracefully across its surface, blending functionality with artistry.

Though not every blade includes this feature, its presence speaks to the thoughtful craftsmanship of Japanese swordsmiths. 

From reducing weight for quicker handling to enhancing the blade’s striking appearance, the bo-hi serves as a perfect example of how practicality and beauty come together in traditional sword-making.

Practical Function of Hi in Japanese Blades

There are several types of grooves (hi), varying in width and shape. The type of groove depends on the preference of the swordsmith or the swordmaking school, making them crucial 

Grooves on Japanese blades, often referred to as hi, serve a practical purpose by lightening the blade, making it easier to wield without compromising its structural rigidity. 

Beyond functionality, grooves also create a distinct “whooshing” sound when the blade is swung, a feature appreciated by practitioners for its feedback and dramatic effect. 

They also serve as decoration on a blade, though there is another type of purely decorative engraving called horimono.

Carving Hi (Grooves) on Japanese Blades

In the realm of Japanese swordmaking, the hi (grooves) can be incorporated into the blade after the swordsmith completes the final shaping of the sword during the kajitogi (rough polishing) process. 

A swordsmith may consider whether he wants to incorporate either hi (grooves), decorative carvings (horimono), decorative bas-reliefs, or even a poem into the blade.

1.  Marking and Carving the Grooves

A swordsmith determines the placement, appearance, and width of the grooves, though the actual carving is often done by a swordsmith’s apprentice. In sword blades, grooves are added above the ridge line (shinogi).

Before the grooves are cut, their location is carefully marked on the blade with ink, and the edge and point areas are covered with tape to protect them. Then, the groove is cut with a drawknife (sen) equipped with a U-shaped blade, shaving off the steel from the blade surface.

2. Finishing the Ends of the Grooves

Ideally, the grooves are inspected carefully while they are being worked to ensure that they are straight and uniform along their entire length. A chisel is used to finish the groove-ends, which must be clear and well-shaped. 

Then, the rough groove is finished using a round file, followed by a series of grinding stones to obtain a smooth, even surface.

3. Burnishing the Groove to a Mirror Surface

During the polishing process, the insides of the groove are burnished by rubbing them with a steel needle until they become bright and reflective. Generally, the process of carving a set of grooves in a long sword, such as a tachi or katana, can take up to two to four days.

In some cases, grooves (hi) are carved into a blade after the shortening process to restore its balance or even conceal a flaw in a Japanese blade. 

Such grooves added later by others instead of the original swordsmith are often referred to as an ato-hi (後樋) or ato-bi (後樋). 

The Anatomy of Hi (Grooves) and Related Terminology

Hi (樋)

The term hi in Japanese refers to the grooves cut into a blade, be it a dagger, sword, spearhead, or polearm. On Japanese swords, these grooves are typically located above the ridge lines (shinogi) on both sides of the blade.

Hisaki (樋先)

The hisaki refers to the tip of a groove toward the point of the blade (kissaki). It may stop near the ridge line (ko-shinogi) in the point area or below the yokote, which is the perpendicular line to the cutting edge.

Chiri (散 or チリ)

The term chiri literally means the wall of the groove. A groove can be carved directly along the ridge line or set slightly off, with the remaining surface referred to as the chiri. However, some blades lack any chiri at all.

Tome (留め)

The term tome refers to the bottom end of the groove towards the blade collar (habaki) or tang (nakago). 

Note that the term tome may also apply to the end of the kaeri, which is the part of the hamon at the point area. In some cases, the term is used to refer to the end knot of a tsukamaki.

Table of Contents

Shiage togi, or finish polishing, is the last half of Japanese sword polishing. It is performed by a professional sword polisher (togishi) using various polishing stones and techniques after shitaji togi (foundation polishing).

This stage is a complex process that brings out the fine details of the hamon(sword pattern) and steel. Each step in shiage togi contributes to refining the blade, enhancing its beauty and character while preserving its traditional craftsmanship.

A Brief Overview of Shiage Togi

Since shiage togi completes the sword polishing process, it is also known as finish polishing. The same principles in shitaji togi applies here: 

• Great control and precision
• Awareness of blade and stone contact
• Paying special attention to the blade’s ridgeline. 

However, there are some significant differences compared to the first half:

The aim of shiage togi is to bring out the fine details of the hamon and the steel. This includes the effects of differential hardening such as the nie and nioi (large crystals and fine particles). All these details are crucial in giving the blade its identity and represents the togishi’s skill. 

While a good polishing reveals and enhances all the details of the blade, a poor polishing will cloud them, decreasing the sword’s value and doing a disservice to the swordsmith. 

Summary of Shiage Togi Steps

Steps in Shiage Togi

The following steps and processes are the major ones in shiage togi and are therefore, not exhaustive. In practice, a togishi may have additional or different steps depending on their school or individual style. 

Hazuya

Hazuya stones are essential tools in the shiage togi stage of Japanese sword polishing. Made from thin slices of uchigumori stone, they are coated with lacquer, backed with Japanese paper, and cut into small squares. 

These thin, flexible stones are made to suit the polisher’s technique, and while commercially available, many togishi prefer to make their own.

1. Preparation:

Once the hazuya stones are ready, other items required are:

• Tojiru – A thin lubricating paste made by rubbing two wet uchigumori stones together.
• Water – Sodium carbonate is added in the water so it is alkaline to prevent the blade’s wet surface from rusting.

Polishing begins by applying a small amount of tojiru (a thin lubricating paste) and water onto an area of the blade that will be polished. The blade is then placed on a stand and held steady using the left hand. 

2. Polishing Process

With the right index and middle finger curled into a fist, it is placed against the blade to serve as a guide during the process. The hazuya is held between the right thumb and blade. It is then moved back and forth lengthwise along the blade, one section at a time. 

Hazuya polishing starts at the tang’s ridgeline down to the edge, gradually moving towards the point. Note that the Kissaki (point) is not polished at this stage. 

If foundation polishing steps were done well, hazuya polishing will significantly take less time.

• Function: Remove uchigumori marks

• Results:
  • No marks or blemishes in the hamon or steel
  • Smooth and uniform blade surface
  • Blade has a whitish and cloudy appearance

Jizuya

The orange or yellowish brown Jizuya stones are made by chiseling flakes from a narutaki stone. It is similar to uchigumori, but harder and finer. Like the Hazuya stones, grind the flakes and back them with paper and lacquer. 

There is much variation in the hardness of the stones at this stage. Based on preference, vision, and experience, the togishi chooses the grade of jizuya to use. This will affect the blade’s final texture, color, and steel detail.

Jizuya stones are used in the same way when polishing as Hazuya stones.

• Function – To bring out the sinogi ji and ji

• Result
  • Blade becomes clearer and darker
  • Jihada begins to stand out

Nugui

Nugui is a fine mixture of iron oxide particles and vegetable oil, used as a gentle abrasive in Japanese sword polishing. While it can be bought, some togishi prefer to make it themselves.

This final step in surface polishing entails applying a small amount of nugui to the blade and rubbing it in with cotton. This is done section by section, one to three times over the entire blade. 

Note that it is not used on the point area. 

• Function
  • Slight polishing
  • Cosmetic purposes – Darkening and highlighting parts of the blade

• Result
  • Darkened steel – Too much nugui turns the metal black
  • Non reflective finish
  • Highlights surface details and grain pattern

Hadori

Since a prominent white hamon is often favored today even by NBTHK judges, hadori is often performed to produce a contrasting edge. 

This is performed using a hazuya stone cut into an oval shape to remove any sharp corners that can scratch the blade.

Since the hazuya stone is coarser than the jizuya stone and nugui mixture, it results in larger scratches. 

This means hadori polishing results in an area that appears whiter than the rest of the blade. This is a time consuming step and can take up to two days to complete. 

Note that while a white hamon is preferred, it can mask some of the finer details of the blade. 

Therefore, collectors who focus on metalwork and craftsmanship prefer to omit hadori and use sashikomi polishing instead to emphasize the details of the hamon.

• Function
  • Causes deeper scratches than jizuya and nugui
  • Lighten the appearance of the hamon

• Result: Hamon is whitened, causing its appearance to be enhanced as it contrasts against the darker nugui finish applied previously. 

Kissaki no Narume (Point Polishing)

During foundation polishing, the point area is moved perpendicularly over the stones. In the final stage, polishing the point is left till much later, skipping hazuya, jizuya, and nugui. 

1. Defining Yokote 

The point area is divided from the rest of the blade by the yokote, a straight line running across the blade to the edge. There can be an actual ridge or just a visual demarcation. 

Before polishing the point, the rest of the blade is wrapped for protection. A flat bamboo guide (mask) is placed on the blade to define the yokote (line separating the tip).

With the mask secured, polishing paste (tojiru) is applied, and a small piece of hazuya (polishing stone) is placed flush against the mask’s edge. Using a bamboo spatula, the polisher moves the hazuya back and forth along the mask’s edge.

This process makes the point area whiter and more distinct, resulting in a clear and sharp yokote.

2. Polishing Process

A narume dai is a wooden block used to support the polishing process. Layers of soft Japanese paper, soaked in water, are placed on the block, with a thin piece of hazuya stone on top.

The wet paper helps the stone move smoothly, while the narume dai cushions it, allowing the polisher to apply even pressure. 

This setup is crucial for polishing the rounded point area, ensuring the stone makes full contact with the surface.

To polish, the point area is carefully moved back and forth over the hazuya, working from the yokote (line separating the tip) to the blade’s tip, ensuring a smooth and even finish.

• Function
  • Polishing the tip of the blade
• Result
  • Boshi (tip area’s temper line) is whitened, clear, and has a matte finish, allowing it to stand out from the rest of the blade. 
  • Yokote is at the proper angle in relation to the back and edge of the blade.

Migaki: Burnishing

Shiage togi is finished with migaki, or burnishing, which polishes the mune (back of the blade) and the shinogi-ji (the flat surface between the back and the ridgeline). 

Burnishing uses pressure to compact the steel, creating a smooth, shiny, and reflective surface that highlights the blade’s craftsmanship.

1. Burnishing Preparations & Tools

Before burnishing, the relevant surfaces are prepared by cleaning them with tsunoko paste, a mixture of powdered horn and water. 

Once it dries, a fine powder called ibota is dusted over the blade. 

This powder, made from a waxy substance produced by insects, acts as a lubricant, helping the burnishing tools glide smoothly.

For the process, migaki bera (burnishing spatulas) and migaki bo (burnishing needles) will also be required. 

2. Burnishing the Surfaces

The burnishing spatula is used before finishing using the needle. Both are rubbed briskly over the surfaces until there is an even mirror-like finish.

Burnishing starts near the tang up to the blade, around 1.5 inches (3 – 4 cm) at a time. 

• Function
  • To create a decorative contrast between the mune and shinogi ji with the rest of the blade.
  • To polish the inner surface of grooves.
• Result
  • The blade’s shinogi ji and mune have a bright and mirror-like reflective surface, contrasting with the other areas of the blade. 

The Final Result

After both foundation and finishing polishing, the togishi’s job is complete. The polished blade will feature clean and well defined lines with a clear and even finish. The various details on the blade are brought out including the:

• Distinct grain
• Surface textures
• Prominent hamon
• Delineated yokote
• Finished point
• Contrasting surfaces

Table of Contents

Shitaji togi or foundation polishing is the first of two parts in Japanese sword polishing to bring out the features in the blade’s steel surface. 

With the other half of the process known as shiage togi, these complex stages are performed by a toshigi, a professional Japanese sword polisher. 

This article takes an in-depth look at foundation polishing, the tools required, and what to expect during the process. 

A Brief Overview of Shitaji Togi

In the first half in Japanese sword polishing, there are several principles the togishi has to keep in mind during the process:

• Great control and precision – This is to prevent the blade being damaged by the larger and coarser polishing stones.
• Awareness of blade and stone contact – Due to the curved blade, care is required to ensure the amount of blade that comes in contact with the stone. 
• Blade’s ridgeline – Special attention is needed around the ridgeline as any mistake can ruin the sword’s appearance. 

Tools of the Trade

Like any craft, there are specific tools of the trade. Besides an area with a sloping floor and drain to allow the water to flow away from the work surface, the togishi will also require various items. 

• Bucket of water – Water is a lubricant and must be constantly applied during polishing.
• Fumaegi – A curved piece of wood with a hook end to clamp the polishing stone to the wood block to prevent it from moving. It also does not put too much pressure on the stones and allows them to be switched out easily.
• Polishing Stones – Polishing starts with rough stones to reshape the sword or remove marks, followed by finer stones for a progressively smoother finish. While natural stones were traditionally used, synthetic stones are now effective for the initial stages.
• Wooden work block – To hold and elevate the polishing stone.

The Working Position

The togishi has to be in the correct working position. Holding the back straight, the polisher sits on a low stool with the right heel pressing down on a fumaegi. The right knee is wedged into the right shoulder while the left foot is curled beneath the body. For safety reasons, the sharpened edge always faces away from the body. 

The right hand holds the sword with a rag. Meanwhile, the left palm rests on the blade’s upper surface with the fingers on the lower surface. Although the fingers wrap around the blade, pressure is never directly exerted over the sharpened edge. 

Only 4 to 5 inches (10.2 – 12.7 cm) of the blade is worked at a time as any wider would be difficult to control.

Working systematically, the togishi concentrates only on one surface at a time using consistent motion and pressure. This makes it easier as well as each surface is polished somewhat differently. Surfaces include:

• Mune – Back or the sword or spine.
• Shinogi-ji – The ridgeline to the back
• Ji – The edge to the ridgeline

Polishing the ji is more laborious as the goal is to bring out the texture of the steel and hamon. 

Stages of Shitaji Togi

The following stages are the major ones in shitaji togi. In practice, a togishi uses many intermediate stones or stones that have only a slight variation in coarseness. 

Note that techniques may differ depending on the togishi or their school. 

Polishing stones have different levels of coarseness or fineness, measured by grit size, which indicates the size of the abrasive particles.

• Coarse Grit (e.g., 60-200): Used for heavy work like reshaping the blade or removing marks.
• Medium Grit (e.g., 300-800): Refines the surface after coarse polishing.
• Fine Grit (e.g., 1000 and above): Creates a smooth, polished finish.

Arato

The arato stone can be used for new swords or older swords that are very rusty or badly damaged. Made of coarse sandstone or carborundum stone, the blade is moved perpendicularly across the stone with water for lubrication. 

• Comparable Grit – 180

• Function
  • Removes file marks
  • Sharpens the edge
  • Smooths and straightens all lines of the edge, back, and ridge

• Result: This creates scratches on the blade’s surface without revealing any features.

Binsui

At this stage, the main concern is regarding the geometry and lines of the blade. Using the binsui stone,, a diagonal or lengthwise movement leaves shallower scratches compared to moving the blade perpendicularly. 

• Comparable Grit – 280 to 320

• Function: Distinguish new marks (finer) from the coarser ones (arato).

• Result: Once the arato marks are gone and only the binsui ones are visible, the togishi moves on to the next stone. 

Kaisei

The kaisei stone is used to give the steel a darker and more reflective appearance. The blade is moved at a 25 degrees angle against the stone and 20 degrees angle to its length to distinguish the new marks from those of the binsui. 

By the end of this stage, the blade’s surfaces and lines will have a geometry that is not changed by the succeeding stones. 

• Comparable Grit – 400 to 600

• Function: Distinguish new marks (finer) from the ones left from the binsui stone.

• Result: Besides the surface becoming smoother and finer, the outline of the hamon also becomes visible. 

Nagura

There are two types of nagura stones: the coarser chu nagura and the finer koma nagura, available in natural or synthetic forms. 

The blade is polished by moving it along the stone lengthwise with a slight rocking motion, which applies more pressure and ensures shallower marks compared to diagonal polishing.

• Comparable Grit
  • chu nagura – 800
  • koma nagura – 1,200 to 1,500

• Function
  • chu nagura – To remove diagonal kaisei marks
  • koma nagura – To refine chu nagura marks

• Result: Kaisei marks are gone and hamon is usually clearly visible.

Uchigumori

At this stage, only natural stones are used. The togishi must inspect the stones for defects that can scratch the blade. While the blade was pushed across the stone previously, in this stage, it is pulled.

There are two types: uchigumori ha to and uchigumori ji to. Much finer than nagura stones, their specific grit depends on the sword being polished based on their shape, tightness of their welds, and carbon content. 

For this reason, a togishi tends to have several grades of uchigumori. Choosing which one to use all depends on their experience and vision of the blade’s final appearance. The blade is moved lengthwise without the rocking motion to prevent scratches. 

• Comparable Grit
  • uchigumori ha to – 3,000 or more
  • uchigumori ji to – 3,000 or more

• Function
  • uchigumori ha to – Used on all surfaces to remove marks left by the nagura stone.
  • uchigumori ji to – Only used on the edge and sides to bring out the jihada above the hamon.

• Result: The marks from the nagura stone are gone, hamon is now clearly visible, and the blade is ready for shiage togi.

Table of Contents

The shinogi, a defining feature of Japanese swords, is more than just a structural element—it’s a window into the artistry and history of swordmaking. 

This prominent ridge line, running parallel to the cutting edge, not only contributes to the blade’s functionality but also holds secrets about its origin. 

From its height to its placement, the shinogi can reveal when a blade was forged and which swordmaking school influenced its design.

Let’s uncover the significance of the shinogi and its role in understanding the craftsmanship behind Japanese swords.

Anatomy and Related Terminologies

• Shinogi (鎬) – The ridge lines on both sides of the blade, between the back (mune) and the cutting edge. It extends from the butt end of the tang (nakago-jiri) to the yokote (the line perpendicular to the cutting edge at the point).

• Shinogi-ji (鎬地) – The flat surface of the blade between the shinogi and the mune (back).

• Ko-shinogi (小鎬) – The continuation of the shinogi in the point area above the yokote, a diagonal line dividing the point area from the back of the blade.

• Shinogi mitsukado (鎬三ﾂ角) – The spot where the shinogi, ko-shinogi, and yokote lines meet.

• Nakago shinogi – The continuation of the shinogi in the tang (nakago) of the blade.

• Kasane – The thickness at the mune (back of the blade).

• Mihaba – The width of the blade from the back edge to the cutting edge.

The Height of the Shinogi

The height of the shinogi refers to the thickness of the blade from one side of the shinogi (ridge line) to the other. Generally, if the blade has a shinogi, the cross-section will be thickest where the ridge line is located. The difference in the thicknesses is described as either high or low.

High Shinogi

If the distance between the two ridge lines is relatively large, it is referred to as a high shinogi. Also, the cross-section of the blade is diamond-shaped. More than that, the distance between the ridge lines is noticeably wider in cross-section compared to the kasane—the width or thickness of the blade at the mune or back.

For instance, a blade may feature a high shinogi, but its actual kasane is thin. High shinogi is commonly found in blade constructions like shobu-zukuri, especially on wakizashi and tanto of the Muromachi period. It also appears on nagamaki, naginata, yari, and ken-style blades.

Low Shinogi

On the other hand, if the distance between the two ridge lines is relatively small, it is described as a low shinogi. In some cases, the shinogi is extremely low and virtually looks like the blade thins from the mune to the shinogi. Also, some blades feature a shinogi that appears to be lower or at the same level as the kasane.

The Shinogi in Various Blade Constructions

Japanese swords and daggers widely varied in blade constructions (tsukurikomi, 造込). Depending on the blade construction, a shinogi may be oriented towards the mune (back of the blade) or the cutting edge. However, the hira-zukuri, which is flat on both sides, lack a shinogi.

1. Shinogi Zukuri

Also known as hon-zukuri (本造), the shinogi-zukuri (鎬造) is the most common blade construction found in Japanese swords, particularly in long swords. Its shinogi is positioned closer to the mune (back of the blade) than to the cutting edge, yokote, and ko-shinogi.

2. Kiriha Zukuri

Also known as kiriba-zukuri (切刃造), a kiriha-zukuri features a shinogi that’s very close to the cutting edge. It can only be seen on ancient blades or later blade reproductions, as some swordsmiths of the Bakumatsu and Meiji eras experimented with the kiriha-zukuri shape.

3. Katakiriha Zukuri

Also known as katakiriba-zukuri (片切刃造), the katakiriha-zukuri features a blade with a shinogi very close to the cutting edge on one side, while the other side remains flat. It emerged during the end of the Kamakura period and regained popularity during the Edo period.

4. Shobu Zukuri

A shobu-zukuri (菖蒲造) is characterized by a blade with a shinogi that extends to the tip of the point area but lacks a yokote line. Its name is derived from its resemblance to a Japanese iris leaf (shobu).

5. Kanmuri Otoshi Zukuri

A kanmuri otoshi zukuri (冠落造) is a blade construction that combines the features of a shinogi-zukuri style on the lower half of the blade. Its distinctive characteristic lies in the diagonally cut shinogi-ji, reminiscent of a shobu-zukuri style. This construction can be found on swords crafted by Yamato swordsmiths and appeared during the Kamakura period.

Examining the Shinogi in Sword Appraisal

In Japanese sword appraisal, the shinogi, along with the shinogi-ji, is an important factor examined regarding a blade’s shape (sugata). It plays a crucial role in dating a blade, as the characteristic features of the shinogi and shinogi-ji often reveal insights into certain swordmaking traditions, production era, and individual swordsmiths.

Shinogi and the Associated Swordmaking Schools

Depending on the height of the shinogi which can be described as either high or low, one can gain an idea regarding the swordsmith, school, or traditions behind the blade. 

Related swordmaking schools for a high shinogi: The Yamato and Yamato-related schools are notable representatives for blades with a high shinogi. These include the Uda, Mihara, Nio, Iruka, Tadasada, Kongobei, and the Naminohira schools. Additionally, the Sue-Bizen schools produced blades featuring a high shinogi. Examples of high shinogi can also be seen in the works of Shinto-era swordsmiths Nanki Shigekuni and Kunikane.

Related swordmaking schools for a low shinogi: The Bizen and Soshu schools were known for producing swords characterized with a low shinogi. This style is evident in blades crafted by the Ichimonji, Osafune, and Kozori schools. Notably, Shinto-era swordsmiths Tsuda Sukehiro and Omi no Kami Sukenao also produced swords with the shinogi appearing to be at the same level or lower than the kasane.

Shinogi-ji and the Associated Swordmaking Schools

The shinogi-ji refers to the surface of the blade between the shinogi (ridge line) and the mune (back of the blade). The width of the shinogi-ji can be described as either narrow or wide.

Related swordmaking schools for a narrow shinogi-ji: The Soshu and Yamashiro swordsmiths were renowned for crafting blades characterized by a narrow shinogi-ji. The Awataguchi school also employed a narrow shinogi-ji in their works, along with swordsmiths Ko-Hoki Yasutsuna, Sekishu-mono, Hidemitsu, Masatsune, Sanetada, and Kotetsu.

Related swordmaking schools for a wide shinogi-ji: The Yamato and Yamato-related schools are recognized for crafting blades characterized by a wide shinogi-ji. Among the swordsmiths known for applying a wide shinogi-ji in their blades are Mino Kanetsugu, Kanesada, Aoe Masatsune, Kozori Tsuneie, and Osafune Mitsutada.

Table of Contents

The mune, or unsharpened back surface of a Japanese sword, is a subtle yet crucial feature of the blade. 

It ensures the sword slides smoothly in and out of the scabbard, protecting its polished surface from scratches.

Beyond its practical role, the mune holds historical significance. Its unique shape and design reflect the techniques of specific swordsmiths and schools, offering valuable clues about the blade’s origins and the time period in which it was crafted.

Anatomy of a Mune and Related Terminologies

• Mune (棟) – The unsharpened back edge or surface of the blade, opposite the cutting edge, extending from the top of the tang (nakago) to the point area (kissaki).

• Munemachi (棟区) – The notch at the top of the tang (nakago) where the back (mune) surface begins, dividing the blade proper from the tang.

• Munesaki (棟先) – The area of the mune towards the tip. Also called matsubasaki, meaning pine-needle tip.

• Munesuji (棟筋) – The ridge line on the mune, e.g. the center ridge line of a two-sided mune (iori-mune) or the two ridge lines of a three-sided mune (mitsu-mune).

• Oroshi (おろし・卸) – The lateral surfaces of the mune. It refers to the slope from the top ridge to the edge of the mune. The slope of the mune can be described as gentle or steep.

• Kasane (重ね) – Thickness of the mune, described as thin or thick. It is measured at where the oroshi meets the shinogi-ji—the flat surface of the blade between the mune and the shinogi (ridge line).

• Muneyaki (棟焼き) – The hardened regions along the back of a blade.

Types of Mune and Their Attribution

The mune, also known as the back edge or back ridge of the blade, has a wide variety of shapes that can be examined by rotating the blade to view it from different angles.

1. Kaku Mune

A kaku-mune (角棟) is a squared-off and flat back surface typically found in ancient blades. It is sometimes referred to as hira-mune or hako-mune, which literally means flat mune and box-shaped mune, respectively.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking school: Although rare, kaku-mune can be seen in some short and thick Sue-Bizen tanto blades.

2. Iori Mune

Also called as gyo no mune, an iori-mune (庵棟) has two sides that comes to a peak at the top. The Japanese term “iori” literally means ridge-line of a roof, a reference to its roof-like shape along the back surface of the blade. The two-sided mune is the most common type, and it became particularly popular after the Koto era.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: An iori-mune is a feature commonly found in blades produced by the Yamato school (Nara prefecture) and its related schools, as well as in blades from the Bizen school (Okayama prefecture) and its related schools. Also, the Shinto swordsmith Hankei is known for incorporating the iori-mune in his work.

3. Mitsu Mune

Also called shin no mune, a mitsu-mune (三ッ棟) has three surfaces and is less common than the two-sided iori-mune. Therefore, the back surface of the sword has the shape of half a hexagon. It may also feature a narrow or wide top surface.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The mitsu-mune is a distinctive feature frequently utilized by Soshu masters, including prominent figures such as Masamune and Sadamune. Typically, Soshu-mono masters applied a wide top surface, while Sue-Soshu swordsmiths tended to employ a narrower top surface.

The mitsu-mune can also be found in later blade reproductions inspired by the Soshu tradition. In Shinto-era blades, this characteristic is prevalent in the works of swordsmiths like Umetada Myôju and schools such as Horikawa and Echizen Yasutsugu. Additionally, it appears on tanto blades crafted by the Yamashiro swordsmiths.

4. Maru Mune

A maru-mune (丸棟) is characterized by a round back surface without corners. This feature was common in ancient swords and occasionally employed by certain swordsmiths and schools.

Related swordsmiths and swordmaking schools: The maru-mune is a feature often seen on Hasebe blades of the Yamashiro tradition. Several other schools, including Nobukuni, Heianjo, Fuyuhiro, Mogusa, and Ko-Bizen schools also employed the maru-mune in their blades.

Swordsmiths such as Kaga Shiro Sukemasa, Osafune Nagamitsu, and Sukezane were known to incorporate this feature in their works. Additionally, it can be found in blades crafted by schools like Aoe, Mihara, and Naminohira.

Examining Additional Mune Features in Sword Appraisal

In Japanese sword appraisal, the blade is examined to determine its age, swordsmith, and swordmaking school. The mune is examined after determining the blade’s length, curvature, taper, and the tip. In addition to the shape or type of the back surface, other aspects such as the steepness of its lateral areas (oroshi) and the thickness of the mune (kasane) are examined.

Oroshi

The term oroshi or slope, is used to indicate how high the ridge is or how steep the lateral areas are as they proceed down the blade, as seen in the case of a two-sided back surface (iori mune). The degree of sloping can be described as either gentle or steep.

A gentle, shallow, or low oroshi describes a mune that rises only a small distance above the top of the shinogi-ji. On the contrary, a steep or high oroshi refers to back surfaces that extend well above the top of the shinogi-ji.

For instance, in an iori-mune (two-sided), the two sides meet at a sharp ridge. A high or steep oroshi, or slope, is typical for Yamato-related schools and swordsmith Hankei (繁慶). On the contrary, a gentle or low oroshi is more typical for Bizen (Okayama prefecture) and its related schools.

Kasane

The kasane refers to the thickness of the mune, measured at where the lateral surfaces meet the shinogi-ji. A kasane can be described as thick or thin. It is also a crucial factor in appraising a sword, as some swordmaking schools are known for producing blades with a thin or thick kasane for their length and width.

In some cases, a kasane can help determine if the blade was produced during an earlier period or if it was a later copy. For instance, certain Nanbokucho blade forms are renowned for their very thin kasane, but later revival works replicating these blade forms may feature a thicker kasane.

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The fuchi, an ornamental ring encircling the hilt of a Japanese sword or dagger, is much more than a decorative piece. 

Serving as a ferrule or hilt collar, it reinforces the base of the hilt, ensuring durability and functionality. 

Often crafted from exquisite alloys like shakudo (copper-gold) or shibuichi (copper-silver), the fuchi showcases the intricate artistry of traditional Japanese metalwork.

Let’s delve into the role of the fuchi, its connection to other sword mountings, and the craftsmanship that made it a key element in Japanese swords.

Craftsmanship and Design of a Fuchi

The Japanese term fuchi (縁) translates as border or margin. These hilt collars or ferrules serve as both a functional and decorative component of sword mounting. The fuchi is frequently designed to match the kashira (pommel cap), collectively referred to as fuchigashira, positioned at opposite ends of the hilt.

Material and Construction

Early fuchi, as seen in uchigatana, were mostly made from horn. However, in later periods, metal emerged as the preferred material, replacing horn. Like many other Japanese sword mounts, fuchi were often made from shakudo—a copper-gold alloy artificially patinated to develop a dark, raven-black finish.

Others were made of shibuichi—a copper-silver alloy patinated into various colors such as brown, blue, or greenish gray—and inlaid with pieces of metal of varying alloys including copper and gold in contrasting colors.

The fuchi has a soldered plate on the bottom, with a hole to allow the tang to pass through. Sometimes, the bottom plate is signed by its maker and includes information about the residence of the maker, date, and occasionally, name of a second artist. However, the tomozoko-fuchi (共底縁) is a type of fuchi that is not constructed from a metal ring with a soldered bottom plate.

Function of a Fuchi

The fuchi is attached at the base of the grip, holding together the two wooden halves of the hilt (tsuka). It sits next to the sword guard (tsuba), a disk-shaped piece of metal that protects the hand. However, in an aikuchi-style mounting that comes without a sword guard, the fuchi and sayaguchi (mouth of a scabbard) meet flatly.

Design and Craftsmanship

The fuchi was often elaborate, and its surface was often polished or decorated with a nanako (fish roe) pattern, made by punching with a rounded hollow-point fine punch. Other techniques include carving, engraving, and inlays. The fuchi was usually designed to match the kashira (pommel cap), though some ornamental fuchi are sometimes used with a plain horn kashira.

During the Edo period, the samurai wore a daisho—a set of long and short swords. The daisho was mounted with matching koshirae. This means that the fuchi of both swords often match. Sometimes, the crest (mon) is featured as a decorative element on the fuchi as well as on other mountings.

Some fuchi, along with other sword mounts, exhibit strong foreign influence. Often produced near foreign trade centers, these fittings found a market among traders who brought them as gifts on diplomatic or trade missions. Sword fitting maker Hirado Kunishige frequently incorporated a blend of Chinese and Western motifs into his work.

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The condition of the nakago, the sword tang, is crucial in sword appraisal. Blade shortening was very common in Japanese swords due to the high cost of steel. Radical changes in fighting styles and the Tokugawa sword regulations led to the shortening of many fine old swords. To preserve the tempering of the blade’s tip, the shortening was always done on the tang.

The Practice of Blade Shortening—and How It Alters the Tang

Blade shortening on the tang has been a practice as old as sword making, providing a more cost-effective means to repurpose a fully functional blade into a shorter sword compared to creating a new one from scratch. Old swords were often shortened to suit evolving fighting styles, transitioning from use on horseback to use by soldiers on foot. Additionally, the Tokugawa government implemented regulations on allowed sword lengths that people could legally wear.

The tang, known as the nakago, is where the swordsmith signed his name. Blades that still bear their original signature (mei) are called zamei. However, when swords were shortened, the original tang and signature (mei) were often lost.

When a Japanese blade has no signature, it is either because the blade was not originally signed by its swordsmith, or because the signature was lost during the shortening process. A blade without signature is called mumei. In some instances, the signatures (mei) are partially preserved by various means.

When a blade is shortened, a new peg hole (mekugi-ana) is made. Sometimes, the signature is damaged by the addition of this peg hole. Each time a blade is altered, the number of peg holes increases. Sometimes, unused holes are inlaid with copper, silver, or gold.

Apart from the mei, the nakago features several details examined in sword appraisal. The shape of the tang, the butt end of the tang (nakagojiri), and yasurime (file marks) provide information about the blade, making them crucial in determining the sword’s age and attribution.

The Various Conditions of a Nakago

A Japanese sword may have an unaltered tang or a shortened nakago. The signature (mei) on the tang is one of its most important features and is often preserved when a sword is shortened.

Here are the various conditions of a Japanese sword tang:

1. Ubu Nakago

An ubu nakago refers to an original, unshortened, or unaltered tang. It is still shaped the way it was created by the swordsmith. It also implies that the tang’s butt end (nakagojiri) and notches (e.g. hamachi and munemachi) are in their original location.

In some cases, a Japanese sword can still be called ubu even if the tang’s curvature has been slightly reshaped, altered, or extra peg holes (mekugi-ana) added because of remounting as long as the blade’s length and shape are only slightly changed.

2. Suriage Nakago

A suriage nakago is a shortened tang. If there’s a signature (mei), it may be partly preserved. During the shortening of the tang, the notches (e.g. hamachi and munemachi) are adjusted higher up the blade. During the Muromachi period, the uchigatana-type sword or katana was preferred for its quicker combat response. Therefore, many tachi were converted into katana by shortening the tang.

Despite having a suriage nakago, a fine tachi nicknamed Okada-giri (which translates as Okada Slayer), made by Bizen swordsmith Ichimonji Yosifusa, is designated as a National Treasure. At the Battle of Komaki Nagakute in 1584, samurai Oda Nobukatsu used it to kill his retainer Okada Sukesaburo Shigotaka, hence its name. The sword features a pronounced curvature and wide blade, and is regarded as a testament to the artistry of all of Yoshifusa’s works.

Tachi-Mei

Tachi, worn with the cutting edge faced down, have their mei located on the side of the nakago that faces outward when the sword is worn. Most swords (excluding wakizashi and tanto) produced during the Muromachi period feature tachi-mei. Exceptions include swords made by swordsmith Yukihira and those of the Ko-Aoe school, as they signed their mei on the inner side facing the body when the tachi was worn.

Katana-Mei

The katana, along with wakizashi and tanto, were worn with the cutting edge faced upwards. Therefore, the katana-mei is located on the side of the tang that faces outward when the blade is worn. Swords produced after the Muromachi period often have katana-mei. However, exceptions include swords made by swordsmith Yamashiro no Kami Kunikiyo and those of the Tadayoshi and Suishinshi school as they inscribed their works with tachi-mei.

3. O-Suriage Nakago

An o-suriage nakago refers to a greatly shortened tang. If the entire nakago is lost during the shortening process, it is called an o-suriage-nakago. It is formed from what was originally part of the blade. Sometimes, a groove known as hi may extend into the nakago due to shortening, though it can also be intentionally created by the swordsmith.

If there was a signature (mei), it is usually completely lost. Many fine Japanese swords from the Kamakura and Nanbokucho periods are unsigned as their signatures were lost due to the shortening process. In some cases, the signature can be preserved by bending the metal bearing the mei into the newly-shortened nakago (orikaeshi-mei) or by resetting it in a new tang (gaku-mei).

4. Machi-Okuri

A machi-okuri describes an original tang, but its notches or machi, such as hamachi and munemachi, are moved upwards. It is done to slightly shorten the blade from the tip (kissaki) to the notches (machi) while extending the tang (nakago); therefore, the overall blade length does not change because the tang is not cut down.

5. Orikaeshi-Mei

The signature (mei) on a Japanese blade is one of its most important features and is often preserved when the blade is shortened. Orikaeshi-mei literally means folded-over signature or turned-back signature.

When a tang is shortened, the portion bearing the signature is thinned down and bent around to the opposite side of the newly shortened tang. This allows the original signature to be preserved, but then appears upside-down on the opposite part of the nakago.

It is recommended to have an accurate drawing of the blade (oshigata) or rubbing of a signature when assessing its authenticity as discrepancies are more noticeable in an oshigata than on the actual blade. Generally, a long piece of rubbing paper should be folded at the tang’s butt end to cover both sides of the nakago.

Then, take a rubbing on both sides of the tang—both the unsigned and the part with the signature. Finally, flatten out the paper and view both sides as a whole. This approach makes it easier to determine whether the tang is bent or if the mei is in an impossible position.

6. Gaku-Mei

Gaku-mei literally means framed signature. When a blade is greatly shortened (o-suriage nakago), the metal portion bearing the signature is cut out in a rectangular shape, thinned, and then re-attached to the new, altered tang.

Gaku-mei is another way of preserving the original signature on the tang even after shortening the blade. Another name for this kind of signature or process is tanzaku-mei because the cutout signature resembles tanzaku, or small vertical poem cards.

7. Hari-Mei

Hari-mei literally means patched signature. It is also known as haritsuke-mei. When a blade is greatly shortened (o-suriage nakago), the metal portion containing the signature is cut out and re-attached to the new, re-shaped tang via small rivets. It is an effective way of preserving the original signature, as gaku-mei can fall out over time.

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The signatures and inscriptions found on the tangs of Japanese swords, known as mei, are a hallmark of craftsmanship and tradition. 

Typically engraved using a chisel and hammer, these signatures often bear the swordsmith’s name and may also include details like the town or province of origin.

Mei styles can vary significantly between swordsmiths, appearing in either block-like printed forms or flowing cursive scripts. 

Their placement also differs depending on the type of sword, with variations commonly seen between tachi and katana.

But what do these differences tell us? From identifying the swordsmith to uncovering the blade’s history, the types of mei and their characteristics hold the key to understanding the story behind each sword.

Examining the Mei and the Tang in Sword Appraisal

The tang of a Japanese sword (nakago) contains various information about the blade, particularly the mei (signature). However, only blades that fully meet the standards are signed. The mei can consist only of the swordsmith’s name or may include additional details such as the:

• Smith’s title
• Smith’s location
• Date the blade was made
• Name of the blade’s owner

Inscribed using a chisel and a hammer, the signature hints at the characteristics of a swordsmith. This includes factors such as the:

• Type of chisel used (e.g., thick or fine chisel) 
• Type of hammer employed (light or heavy) based on the strokes on the metal
• Additional distinguishing features like the depth and number of chisel strokes per inch.

Signature styles are unique and vary just as much as different handwritings. The inscribed characters may be cursive scripts or block-like printed styles. Unfortunately, forgeries are common. Therefore, a blade should never be judged solely based on its mei in Japanese sword appraisal. 

When examining a sword’s tang, there are several factors to look for:

1. Since the tang of a Japanese sword is never cleaned or polished, the rust that builds up on the tang over time becomes an important indicator of the sword’s age. 
2. The color of the rust, clarity of remaining mei, and yasurime (file marks) help to date the sword and determine its authenticity. 

Therefore, cleaning the tang of an old Japanese blade can diminish much of its value.

The Various Types of Mei on Sword Tangs

The mei (銘) is chiseled into the tang. Blades that still have their original mei are known as zamei. Those without signatures are called mumei, likely due to absence of signing or the mei being lost when the blade was shortened. Meanwhile, gimei are  blades with a false signature.

Here are the different types of mei found on Japanese swords and daggers:

1. Tachi-Mei

A tachi-mei (太刀銘) refers to a signature inscribed on the obverse of the tang (haki-omote side)—the side that face outwards when the tachi is worn suspended from the belt with its cutting edge facing down. Swords from the early Muromachi period, except for wakizashi and tanto, often featured tachi-mei.

2. Katana-Mei

A katana-mei (刀銘) is a signature of a sword carved on the sashi-omote side—the side that face outwards when the sword was worn thrust through the belt with its cutting edge facing up. The katana, wakizashi, and tanto often had a katana-mei. Therefore, it is the opposite of a tachi-mei. Most swords produced after the Muromachi period often had a katana-mei.

On the right side with gold lacquer: Kanbun 6th year, 5th month, 4th day” (寛文六年五月四曰), translated as (May 4, 1666.). With name of a famous sword tester, Yamano Kaemon no Jô Nagahisa (山野加右衛門尉永久). With inscription: Futatsu do setsudan (貳ッ胴截断), translated as “Cut through two torsos with one stroke.”]

3. Omote-Mei and Ura-Mei

Omote (表) is a generic term for outside, exterior, or front side. An omote-mei refers to the signature on the front side of the blade, typically featuring the swordsmith’s signature. Blades forged after the Muromachi period usually included the swordsmith’s title and address.

Depending on how the sword is worn, it can be differentiated between:

• Haki-omote – refers to the outside of the blade when the sword is worn tachi-style (suspended from the belt with its cutting edge down) 
• Sashi-omote – refers to the outside of the blade when the sword is worn katana-style (thrust through the belt with its cutting edge facing up)

Ura (裏) is a generic term for inside or reverse side. An ura-mei refers to the inscription on the back side of the blade, usually featuring the date of manufacture and the blade owner’s name.

Depending on how the sword is worn, it can be differentiated between:

• Haki-ura – refers to the inside of the blade when the sword is worn tachi-style (suspended from belt with cutting edge down)
• Sashi-ura – refers to the inside of a blade when the sword is worn katana-style (thrust through the belt with cutting edge facing up)

4. Niji-Mei

The term niji-mei (二字銘) or “two-character signature” is a short signature with two Chinese characters, mentioning just the name of the swordsmith. Niji-mei were often seen on Koto swords, especially during the Heian and Kamakura periods. It was used by swordsmiths Muramasa, Masamune, Masatsune, Nagamitsu, and others.

5. Naga-Mei

The term naga-mei (長銘) means long signature. This type of mei usually consists of six or more characters, usually including the swordsmith’s title, middle name, and address. 

However, there is no rule specifying differentiation at six characters. Terms such as rokuji-mei, shichiji-mei, or hachiji-mei also refer to signatures with exactly six, seven, or eight characters, respectively. The nagamei became the standard after the Shinto era.

6. Zuryo-Mei

Some swordsmiths received their titles from the imperial court, such as suke (Third Lord or Second Assistant Lord), daijo (Second or Assistant Lord), kami (Lord). A zuryo-mei refers to a signature that includes such titles and frequently appears on Shinto and later swords.

7. Kaki-Kudashi-Mei

A kaki-kudashi-mei (書下し銘) refers to a signature in which the entire inscription is carved in one line on one side of the tang. It usually includes the swordsmith’s name, place of residence, and date of manufacture. Sometimes, a small space between the smith’s name and date is present.

The kaki-kudashi-mei was first used by Yamashiro and Bizen swordsmiths. The Yamato smiths also signed their blades (usually tanto and ken) on just one side throughout the Kamakura and Nanbokucho periods. Additionally, the Aoe swordsmiths used this type of signature mainly in the Nanbokucho period.

8. Tameshi-Mei

A tameshi-mei (試し銘) is an inscription on the tang commemorating a cutting test (tameshigiri). It often includes the name of the sword tester and notes the blade’s sharpness demonstrated during tameshigiri. It sometimes includes the statement that a target or body was completely cut through.

A tameshi-mei is often chiseled (kiritsuke-mei) or inlaid in gold (kinzogan) on the opposite side of the swordsmith’s signature. The practice of recording cutting test results on sword tangs was standardized during the Shoho (1644-1648) and Joo (1652-1655) eras.

9. Kiritsuke-Mei

The term kiritsuke-mei (切り付け銘) means added signature. It is inscribed later on the tang, probably after the blade has left the swordsmith’s forge. It also replaces the original signature when the tang is greatly shortened (o-suriage).

A kiritsuke-mei may include the blade’s history, sword’s owners, its nickname, and cutting test results. It can also contain information about the original signature if it had been greatly shortened and the name of the person who shortened the tang.

10. Damei

A damei refers to a substitute signature when a swordsmith’s mei is inscribed on the blade by one’s son or student with permission. It is regarded as an equivalent of the real signature. For instance, the Rai smiths or Rai-ichimon lack signed works, but they served as assistants to their masters Kunitoshi and others. Thus, it is likely that several Kunimitsu and Kunitoshi blades are damei by these Rai smiths.

11. Shu-Mei

A shu-mei (朱銘) refers to the red lacquer inscription of an appraiser. It was primarily done by members of the Hon’ami family, the official sword appraisers of the shogunate. An appraiser may provide the name of an attributed swordsmith on an unaltered tang or shortened tang without signature. Other information may include the blade’s nickname and cutting test result. Generally, a red lacquer was used to avoid carving directly onto the tang.

12. Kinzogan-Mei

A kinzōgan-mei (金象嵌銘) refers to a gold inlay inscription, usually made by members of the Hon’ami family. Their kinzōgan-mei usually featured the characters “Hon’ a” (本阿) for “Hon’ami” and the personal seal (kaō) of the appraiser. It also often included the name of the attributed swordsmith, owner’s name, blade’s nickname, and cutting test result.

13. Chumon-Mei or Tame-Mei

Both chumon-mei (注文銘) and tame-mei (為銘) refer to an inscription that bears the name of the person who ordered the sword. The terms chumon and tame are translated as order and for, respectively. The blade may also be described as chūmon-uchi (注文打), meaning custom made or special order sword. However, the term chūmon-uchi was coined to differentiate custom-made Sue-koto blades from mass produced ones.

14.  Kinmei or Taimei

Both kinmei and taimei denote that a high-ranking individual such as an aristocrat, shogun, member of the Imperial family, or the emperor ordered the sword. These blades are known as kinmei-uchi (鈞命打) or taimei-uchi (台命打).

15. Orikaeshi-Mei

When a blade is shortened, the mei can be lost, but it can also be preserved by various means. An orikaeshi-mei (折り返し銘) means turned-back or folded-over signature. The part of the tang originally bearing the signature is thinned and folded back onto the opposite side to shorten the tang. As a result, the orikaeshi-mei appears upside down on the opposite part of the tang.

16. Gaku-Mei or Tanzaku-Mei

Gaku-mei (額銘) or framed signature is another method of retaining the original signature after shortening the blade. It is also known as tanzaku-mei (短冊銘) due to its resemblance of the small vertical poem cards (tanzaku).

The gaku-mei is often found on blades that have been greatly shortened (o-suriage), in which the rectangular part of metal containing the original signature is cut from the discarded tang and inlaid onto the newly reshaped tang.

17. Hari-Mei or Haritsuke-Mei

Hari-mei (貼り銘) or haritsuke-mei (貼付け銘) means patched signature. It is commonly found on greatly shortened blades (ō-suriage), where the part of metal bearing the original mei is cut out and attached to the newly formed end of the tang (nakagojiri) using small rivets.

Translating and Assessing the Authenticity of Mei

For the specific translation of a mei and signature assessments, Mr. Markus Sesko is an expert in Japanese arms and armor and a member of NBTHK (Society for Preservation of Japanese Art Swords). A mei can be assessed to help determine if it is authentic (shôshin) or a forgery (gimei). However, Japanese blades are never appraised based solely on their signature.

In Japan, recognized organizations like NBTHK and NTHK conduct shinsa, the formal appraisal and evaluation of swords. For instance, swords assessed by the NBTHK may be granted appraisal papers known as kantei-sho, documenting the judges’ opinions on their quality and value. Some blades may not pass shinsa if they bear a false signature or if they are in poor condition, have poor polish, and such.